Translate all code to English (#1836)

* Review the EN heading format.

* Fix pythontutor headings.

* Fix pythontutor headings.

* bug fixes

* Fix headings in **/summary.md

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Python code using Claude-4.5

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Java code using Claude-4.5

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Cpp code using Claude-4.5.

* Fix the dictionary.

* Fix cpp code translation for the multipart strings.

* Translate Go code to English.

* Update workflows to test EN code.

* Add EN translation for C.

* Add EN translation for CSharp.

* Add EN translation for Swift.

* Trigger the CI check.

* Revert.

* Update en/hash_map.md

* Add the EN version of Dart code.

* Add the EN version of Kotlin code.

* Add missing code files.

* Add the EN version of JavaScript code.

* Add the EN version of TypeScript code.

* Fix the workflows.

* Add the EN version of Ruby code.

* Add the EN version of Rust code.

* Update the CI check for the English version  code.

* Update Python CI check.

* Fix cmakelists for en/C code.

* Fix Ruby comments

en/codes/cpp/chapter_array_and_linkedlist/array.cpp

@@ -6,18 +6,18 @@
 
 #include "../utils/common.hpp"
 
-/* Random access to elements */
+/* Random access to element */
 int randomAccess(int *nums, int size) {
-    // Randomly select a number in the range [0, size)
+    // Randomly select a number from interval [0, size)
     int randomIndex = rand() % size;
-    // Retrieve and return a random element
+    // Retrieve and return the random element
     int randomNum = nums[randomIndex];
     return randomNum;
 }
 
 /* Extend array length */
 int *extend(int *nums, int size, int enlarge) {
-    // Initialize an extended length array
+    // Initialize an array with extended length
     int *res = new int[size + enlarge];
     // Copy all elements from the original array to the new array
     for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
@@ -25,23 +25,23 @@ int *extend(int *nums, int size, int enlarge) {
     }
     // Free memory
     delete[] nums;
-    // Return the new array after expansion
+    // Return the extended new array
     return res;
 }
 
-/* Insert element num at `index` */
+/* Insert element num at index index in the array */
 void insert(int *nums, int size, int num, int index) {
-    // Move all elements after `index` one position backward
+    // Move all elements at and after index index backward by one position
     for (int i = size - 1; i > index; i--) {
         nums[i] = nums[i - 1];
     }
-    // Assign num to the element at index
+    // Assign num to the element at index index
     nums[index] = num;
 }
 
-/* Remove the element at `index` */
+/* Remove the element at index index */
 void remove(int *nums, int size, int index) {
-    // Move all elements after `index` one position forward
+    // Move all elements after index index forward by one position
     for (int i = index; i < size - 1; i++) {
         nums[i] = nums[i + 1];
     }
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ void traverse(int *nums, int size) {
     }
 }
 
-/* Search for a specified element in the array */
+/* Find the specified element in the array */
 int find(int *nums, int size, int target) {
     for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
         if (nums[i] == target)
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ int find(int *nums, int size, int target) {
 
 /* Driver Code */
 int main() {
-    /* Initialize an array */
+    /* Initialize array */
     int size = 5;
     int *arr = new int[size];
     cout << "Array arr = ";
@@ -77,33 +77,33 @@ int main() {
     cout << "Array nums = ";
     printArray(nums, size);
 
-    /* Random access */
+    /* Insert element */
     int randomNum = randomAccess(nums, size);
-    cout << "Get a random element from nums = " << randomNum << endl;
+    cout << "Get random element in nums " << randomNum << endl;
 
-    /* Length extension */
+    /* Traverse array */
     int enlarge = 3;
     nums = extend(nums, size, enlarge);
     size += enlarge;
-    cout << "Extend the array length to 8, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Extend array length to 8, resulting in nums = ";
     printArray(nums, size);
 
     /* Insert element */
     insert(nums, size, 6, 3);
-    cout << "Insert the number 6 at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Insert number 6 at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
     printArray(nums, size);
 
     /* Remove element */
     remove(nums, size, 2);
-    cout << "Remove the element at index 2, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Remove element at index 2, resulting in nums = ";
     printArray(nums, size);
 
     /* Traverse array */
     traverse(nums, size);
 
-    /* Search for elements */
+    /* Find element */
     int index = find(nums, size, 3);
-    cout << "Find element 3 in nums, index = " << index << endl;
+    cout << "Find element 3 in nums, get index = " << index << endl;
 
     // Free memory
     delete[] arr;

en/codes/cpp/chapter_array_and_linkedlist/linked_list.cpp

@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ void remove(ListNode *n0) {
     delete P;
 }
 
-/* Access the node at `index` in the linked list */
+/* Access the node at index index in the linked list */
 ListNode *access(ListNode *head, int index) {
     for (int i = 0; i < index; i++) {
         if (head == nullptr)
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ ListNode *access(ListNode *head, int index) {
     return head;
 }
 
-/* Search for the first node with value target in the linked list */
+/* Find the first node with value target in the linked list */
 int find(ListNode *head, int target) {
     int index = 0;
     while (head != nullptr) {
@@ -61,26 +61,26 @@ int main() {
     n1->next = n2;
     n2->next = n3;
     n3->next = n4;
-    cout << "The initialized linked list is" << endl;
+    cout << "Initialized linked list is" << endl;
     printLinkedList(n0);
 
     /* Insert node */
     insert(n0, new ListNode(0));
-    cout << "Linked list after inserting the node is" << endl;
+    cout << "Linked list after inserting node is" << endl;
     printLinkedList(n0);
 
     /* Remove node */
     remove(n0);
-    cout << "Linked list after removing the node is" << endl;
+    cout << "Linked list after removing node is" << endl;
     printLinkedList(n0);
 
     /* Access node */
     ListNode *node = access(n0, 3);
-    cout << "The value of the node at index 3 in the linked list = " << node->val << endl;
+    cout << "Value of node at index 3 in linked list = " << node->val << endl;
 
     /* Search node */
     int index = find(n0, 2);
-    cout << "The index of the node with value 2 in the linked list = " << index << endl;
+    cout << "Index of node with value 2 in linked list = " << index << endl;
 
     // Free memory
     freeMemoryLinkedList(n0);

en/codes/cpp/chapter_array_and_linkedlist/list.cpp

@@ -13,21 +13,21 @@ int main() {
     cout << "List nums = ";
     printVector(nums);
 
-    /* Access element */
-    int num = nums[1];
-    cout << "Access the element at index 1, obtained num = " << num << endl;
-
     /* Update element */
+    int num = nums[1];
+    cout << "Access element at index 1, get num = " << num << endl;
+
+    /* Add elements at the end */
     nums[1] = 0;
-    cout << "Update the element at index 1 to 0, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Update element at index 1 to 0, resulting in nums = ";
     printVector(nums);
 
-    /* Clear list */
+    /* Remove element */
     nums.clear();
-    cout << "After clearing the list, nums = ";
+    cout << "After clearing list, nums = ";
     printVector(nums);
 
-    /* Add element at the end */
+    /* Direct traversal of list elements */
     nums.push_back(1);
     nums.push_back(3);
     nums.push_back(2);
@@ -36,22 +36,22 @@ int main() {
     cout << "After adding elements, nums = ";
     printVector(nums);
 
-    /* Insert element in the middle */
+    /* Sort list */
     nums.insert(nums.begin() + 3, 6);
-    cout << "Insert the number 6 at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Insert number 6 at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
     printVector(nums);
 
     /* Remove element */
     nums.erase(nums.begin() + 3);
-    cout << "Remove the element at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Remove element at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
     printVector(nums);
 
-    /* Traverse the list by index */
+    /* Traverse list by index */
     int count = 0;
     for (int i = 0; i < nums.size(); i++) {
         count += nums[i];
     }
-    /* Traverse the list elements */
+    /* Directly traverse list elements */
     count = 0;
     for (int x : nums) {
         count += x;
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ int main() {
 
     /* Sort list */
     sort(nums.begin(), nums.end());
-    cout << "After sorting the list, nums = ";
+    cout << "After sorting list, nums = ";
     printVector(nums);
 
     return 0;

en/codes/cpp/chapter_array_and_linkedlist/my_list.cpp

@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ class MyList {
     int *arr;             // Array (stores list elements)
     int arrCapacity = 10; // List capacity
     int arrSize = 0;      // List length (current number of elements)
-    int extendRatio = 2;   // Multiple for each list expansion
+    int extendRatio = 2;   // Multiple by which the list capacity is extended each time
 
   public:
     /* Constructor */
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ class MyList {
         return arrCapacity;
     }
 
-    /* Access element */
+    /* Update element */
     int get(int index) {
         // If the index is out of bounds, throw an exception, as below
         if (index < 0 || index >= size())
@@ -43,16 +43,16 @@ class MyList {
         return arr[index];
     }
 
-    /* Update element */
+    /* Add elements at the end */
     void set(int index, int num) {
         if (index < 0 || index >= size())
             throw out_of_range("Index out of bounds");
         arr[index] = num;
     }
 
-    /* Add element at the end */
+    /* Direct traversal of list elements */
     void add(int num) {
-        // When the number of elements exceeds capacity, trigger the expansion mechanism
+        // When the number of elements exceeds capacity, trigger the extension mechanism
         if (size() == capacity())
             extendCapacity();
         arr[size()] = num;
@@ -60,14 +60,14 @@ class MyList {
         arrSize++;
     }
 
-    /* Insert element in the middle */
+    /* Sort list */
     void insert(int index, int num) {
         if (index < 0 || index >= size())
             throw out_of_range("Index out of bounds");
-        // When the number of elements exceeds capacity, trigger the expansion mechanism
+        // When the number of elements exceeds capacity, trigger the extension mechanism
         if (size() == capacity())
             extendCapacity();
-        // Move all elements after `index` one position backward
+        // Move all elements after index index forward by one position
         for (int j = size() - 1; j >= index; j--) {
             arr[j + 1] = arr[j];
         }
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ class MyList {
         if (index < 0 || index >= size())
             throw out_of_range("Index out of bounds");
         int num = arr[index];
-        // Move all elements after `index` one position forward
+        // Create a new array with length _extend_ratio times the original array, and copy the original array to the new array
         for (int j = index; j < size() - 1; j++) {
             arr[j] = arr[j + 1];
         }
@@ -91,9 +91,9 @@ class MyList {
         return num;
     }
 
-    /* Extend list */
+    /* Driver Code */
     void extendCapacity() {
-        // Create a new array with a length multiple of the original array by extendRatio
+        // Create a new array with length extendRatio times the original array
         int newCapacity = capacity() * extendRatio;
         int *tmp = arr;
         arr = new int[newCapacity];
@@ -106,9 +106,9 @@ class MyList {
         arrCapacity = newCapacity;
     }
 
-    /* Convert the list to a Vector for printing */
+    /* Convert list to Vector for printing */
     vector<int> toVector() {
-        // Only convert elements within valid length range
+        // Elements enqueue
         vector<int> vec(size());
         for (int i = 0; i < size(); i++) {
             vec[i] = arr[i];
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ class MyList {
 int main() {
     /* Initialize list */
     MyList *nums = new MyList();
-    /* Add element at the end */
+    /* Direct traversal of list elements */
     nums->add(1);
     nums->add(3);
     nums->add(2);
@@ -132,34 +132,34 @@ int main() {
     printVector(vec);
     cout << "Capacity = " << nums->capacity() << ", length = " << nums->size() << endl;
 
-    /* Insert element in the middle */
+    /* Sort list */
     nums->insert(3, 6);
-    cout << "Insert the number 6 at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Insert number 6 at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
     vec = nums->toVector();
     printVector(vec);
 
     /* Remove element */
     nums->remove(3);
-    cout << "Remove the element at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Remove element at index 3, resulting in nums = ";
     vec = nums->toVector();
     printVector(vec);
 
-    /* Access element */
-    int num = nums->get(1);
-    cout << "Access the element at index 1, obtained num = " << num << endl;
-
     /* Update element */
+    int num = nums->get(1);
+    cout << "Access element at index 1, get num = " << num << endl;
+
+    /* Add elements at the end */
     nums->set(1, 0);
-    cout << "Update the element at index 1 to 0, resulting in nums = ";
+    cout << "Update element at index 1 to 0, resulting in nums = ";
     vec = nums->toVector();
     printVector(vec);
 
-    /* Test expansion mechanism */
+    /* Test capacity expansion mechanism */
     for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
-        // At i = 5, the list length will exceed the list capacity, triggering the expansion mechanism at this time
+        // At i = 5, the list length will exceed the list capacity, triggering the expansion mechanism
         nums->add(i);
     }
-    cout << "After extending, list nums = ";
+    cout << "List nums after expansion = ";
     vec = nums->toVector();
     printVector(vec);
     cout << "Capacity = " << nums->capacity() << ", length = " << nums->size() << endl;