Translate all code to English (#1836)

* Review the EN heading format.

* Fix pythontutor headings.

* Fix pythontutor headings.

* bug fixes

* Fix headings in **/summary.md

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Python code using Claude-4.5

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Java code using Claude-4.5

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Cpp code using Claude-4.5.

* Fix the dictionary.

* Fix cpp code translation for the multipart strings.

* Translate Go code to English.

* Update workflows to test EN code.

* Add EN translation for C.

* Add EN translation for CSharp.

* Add EN translation for Swift.

* Trigger the CI check.

* Revert.

* Update en/hash_map.md

* Add the EN version of Dart code.

* Add the EN version of Kotlin code.

* Add missing code files.

* Add the EN version of JavaScript code.

* Add the EN version of TypeScript code.

* Fix the workflows.

* Add the EN version of Ruby code.

* Add the EN version of Rust code.

* Update the CI check for the English version  code.

* Update Python CI check.

* Fix cmakelists for en/C code.

* Fix Ruby comments

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/binary_search.go

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+// File: binary_search.go
+// Created Time: 2022-12-05
+// Author: Slone123c (274325721@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+/* Binary search (closed interval on both sides) */
+func binarySearch(nums []int, target int) int {
+	// Initialize closed interval [0, n-1], i.e., i, j point to the first and last elements of the array
+	i, j := 0, len(nums)-1
+	// Loop, exit when the search interval is empty (empty when i > j)
+	for i <= j {
+		m := i + (j-i)/2      // Calculate the midpoint index m
+		if nums[m] < target { // This means target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+			i = m + 1
+		} else if nums[m] > target { // This means target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+			j = m - 1
+		} else { // Found the target element, return its index
+			return m
+		}
+	}
+	// Target element not found, return -1
+	return -1
+}
+
+/* Binary search (left-closed right-open interval) */
+func binarySearchLCRO(nums []int, target int) int {
+	// Initialize left-closed right-open interval [0, n), i.e., i, j point to the first element and last element+1
+	i, j := 0, len(nums)
+	// Loop, exit when the search interval is empty (empty when i = j)
+	for i < j {
+		m := i + (j-i)/2      // Calculate the midpoint index m
+		if nums[m] < target { // This means target is in the interval [m+1, j)
+			i = m + 1
+		} else if nums[m] > target { // This means target is in the interval [i, m)
+			j = m
+		} else { // Found the target element, return its index
+			return m
+		}
+	}
+	// Target element not found, return -1
+	return -1
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/binary_search_edge.go

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+// File: binary_search_edge.go
+// Created Time: 2023-08-23
+// Author: Reanon (793584285@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+/* Binary search for the leftmost target */
+func binarySearchLeftEdge(nums []int, target int) int {
+	// Equivalent to finding the insertion point of target
+	i := binarySearchInsertion(nums, target)
+	// Target not found, return -1
+	if i == len(nums) || nums[i] != target {
+		return -1
+	}
+	// Found target, return index i
+	return i
+}
+
+/* Binary search for the rightmost target */
+func binarySearchRightEdge(nums []int, target int) int {
+	// Convert to finding the leftmost target + 1
+	i := binarySearchInsertion(nums, target+1)
+	// j points to the rightmost target, i points to the first element greater than target
+	j := i - 1
+	// Target not found, return -1
+	if j == -1 || nums[j] != target {
+		return -1
+	}
+	// Found target, return index j
+	return j
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/binary_search_insertion.go

@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+// File: binary_search_insertion.go
+// Created Time: 2023-08-23
+// Author: Reanon (793584285@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+/* Binary search for insertion point (no duplicate elements) */
+func binarySearchInsertionSimple(nums []int, target int) int {
+	// Initialize closed interval [0, n-1]
+	i, j := 0, len(nums)-1
+	for i <= j {
+		// Calculate the midpoint index m
+		m := i + (j-i)/2
+		if nums[m] < target {
+			// target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+			i = m + 1
+		} else if nums[m] > target {
+			// target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+			j = m - 1
+		} else {
+			// Found target, return insertion point m
+			return m
+		}
+	}
+	// Target not found, return insertion point i
+	return i
+}
+
+/* Binary search for insertion point (with duplicate elements) */
+func binarySearchInsertion(nums []int, target int) int {
+	// Initialize closed interval [0, n-1]
+	i, j := 0, len(nums)-1
+	for i <= j {
+		// Calculate the midpoint index m
+		m := i + (j-i)/2
+		if nums[m] < target {
+			// target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+			i = m + 1
+		} else if nums[m] > target {
+			// target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+			j = m - 1
+		} else {
+			// The first element less than target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+			j = m - 1
+		}
+	}
+	// Return insertion point i
+	return i
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/binary_search_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+// File: binary_search_test.go
+// Created Time: 2022-12-05
+// Author: Slone123c (274325721@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func TestBinarySearch(t *testing.T) {
+	var (
+		target   = 6
+		nums     = []int{1, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 23, 26, 31, 35}
+		expected = 2
+	)
+	// Perform binary search in array
+	actual := binarySearch(nums, target)
+	fmt.Println("Index of target element 6 =", actual)
+	if actual != expected {
+		t.Errorf("Index of target element 6 = %d, should be %d", actual, expected)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestBinarySearchEdge(t *testing.T) {
+	// Array with duplicate elements
+	nums := []int{1, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 23, 26, 31, 35}
+	fmt.Println("\nArray nums = ", nums)
+
+	// Binary search left and right boundaries
+	for _, target := range []int{6, 7} {
+		index := binarySearchLeftEdge(nums, target)
+		fmt.Println("Leftmost element", target, " index is", index)
+
+		index = binarySearchRightEdge(nums, target)
+		fmt.Println("Rightmost element", target, " index is", index)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestBinarySearchInsertion(t *testing.T) {
+	// Array without duplicate elements
+	nums := []int{1, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 23, 26, 31, 35}
+	fmt.Println("Array nums =", nums)
+
+	// Binary search for insertion point
+	for _, target := range []int{6, 9} {
+		index := binarySearchInsertionSimple(nums, target)
+		fmt.Println("Element", target, " insertion point index is", index)
+	}
+
+	// Array with duplicate elements
+	nums = []int{1, 3, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 10, 12, 15}
+	fmt.Println("\nArray nums =", nums)
+
+	// Binary search for insertion point
+	for _, target := range []int{2, 6, 20} {
+		index := binarySearchInsertion(nums, target)
+		fmt.Println("Element", target, " insertion point index is", index)
+	}
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/hashing_search.go

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+// File: hashing_search.go
+// Created Time: 2022-12-12
+// Author: Slone123c (274325721@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+import . "github.com/krahets/hello-algo/pkg"
+
+/* Hash search (array) */
+func hashingSearchArray(m map[int]int, target int) int {
+	// Hash table's key: target element, value: index
+	// If this key does not exist in the hash table, return -1
+	if index, ok := m[target]; ok {
+		return index
+	} else {
+		return -1
+	}
+}
+
+/* Hash search (linked list) */
+func hashingSearchLinkedList(m map[int]*ListNode, target int) *ListNode {
+	// Hash table key: target node value, value: node object
+	// Return nil if key does not exist in hash table
+	if node, ok := m[target]; ok {
+		return node
+	} else {
+		return nil
+	}
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/hashing_search_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+// File: hashing_search_test.go
+// Created Time: 2022-12-12
+// Author: Slone123c (274325721@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"testing"
+
+	. "github.com/krahets/hello-algo/pkg"
+)
+
+func TestHashingSearch(t *testing.T) {
+	target := 3
+	/* Hash search (array) */
+	nums := []int{1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 7, 5, 9, 10, 8}
+	// Initialize hash table
+	m := make(map[int]int)
+	for i := 0; i < len(nums); i++ {
+		m[nums[i]] = i
+	}
+	index := hashingSearchArray(m, target)
+	fmt.Println("Index of target element 3 = ", index)
+
+	/* Hash search (linked list) */
+	head := ArrayToLinkedList(nums)
+	// Initialize hash table
+	m1 := make(map[int]*ListNode)
+	for head != nil {
+		m1[head.Val] = head
+		head = head.Next
+	}
+	node := hashingSearchLinkedList(m1, target)
+	fmt.Println("Node object corresponding to target node value 3 is ", node)
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/linear_search.go

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+// File: linear_search.go
+// Created Time: 2022-11-25
+// Author: Reanon (793584285@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+import (
+	. "github.com/krahets/hello-algo/pkg"
+)
+
+/* Linear search (array) */
+func linearSearchArray(nums []int, target int) int {
+	// Traverse array
+	for i := 0; i < len(nums); i++ {
+		// Found the target element, return its index
+		if nums[i] == target {
+			return i
+		}
+	}
+	// Target element not found, return -1
+	return -1
+}
+
+/* Linear search (linked list) */
+func linearSearchLinkedList(node *ListNode, target int) *ListNode {
+	// Traverse the linked list
+	for node != nil {
+		// Found the target node, return it
+		if node.Val == target {
+			return node
+		}
+		node = node.Next
+	}
+	// Target element not found, return nil
+	return nil
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/linear_search_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+// File: linear_search_test.go
+// Created Time: 2022-11-25
+// Author: Reanon (793584285@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"testing"
+
+	. "github.com/krahets/hello-algo/pkg"
+)
+
+func TestLinearSearch(t *testing.T) {
+	target := 3
+	nums := []int{1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 7, 5, 9, 10, 8}
+
+	// Perform linear search in array
+	index := linearSearchArray(nums, target)
+	fmt.Println("Index of target element 3 =", index)
+
+	// Perform linear search in linked list
+	head := ArrayToLinkedList(nums)
+	node := linearSearchLinkedList(head, target)
+	fmt.Println("Node object with target value 3 is", node)
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/two_sum.go

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+// File: two_sum.go
+// Created Time: 2022-11-25
+// Author: reanon (793584285@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+/* Method 1: Brute force enumeration */
+func twoSumBruteForce(nums []int, target int) []int {
+	size := len(nums)
+	// Two nested loops, time complexity is O(n^2)
+	for i := 0; i < size-1; i++ {
+		for j := i + 1; j < size; j++ {
+			if nums[i]+nums[j] == target {
+				return []int{i, j}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+/* Method 2: Auxiliary hash table */
+func twoSumHashTable(nums []int, target int) []int {
+	// Auxiliary hash table, space complexity is O(n)
+	hashTable := map[int]int{}
+	// Single loop, time complexity is O(n)
+	for idx, val := range nums {
+		if preIdx, ok := hashTable[target-val]; ok {
+			return []int{preIdx, idx}
+		}
+		hashTable[val] = idx
+	}
+	return nil
+}

en/codes/go/chapter_searching/two_sum_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+// File: two_sum_test.go
+// Created Time: 2022-11-25
+// Author: reanon (793584285@qq.com)
+
+package chapter_searching
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func TestTwoSum(t *testing.T) {
+	// ======= Test Case =======
+	nums := []int{2, 7, 11, 15}
+	target := 13
+
+	// ====== Driver Code ======
+	// Method 1: Brute-force approach
+	res := twoSumBruteForce(nums, target)
+	fmt.Println("Method 1 res =", res)
+	// Method 2: Hash table
+	res = twoSumHashTable(nums, target)
+	fmt.Println("Method 2 res =", res)
+}