Translate all code to English (#1836)

* Review the EN heading format.

* Fix pythontutor headings.

* Fix pythontutor headings.

* bug fixes

* Fix headings in **/summary.md

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Python code using Claude-4.5

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Java code using Claude-4.5

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Cpp code using Claude-4.5.

* Fix the dictionary.

* Fix cpp code translation for the multipart strings.

* Translate Go code to English.

* Update workflows to test EN code.

* Add EN translation for C.

* Add EN translation for CSharp.

* Add EN translation for Swift.

* Trigger the CI check.

* Revert.

* Update en/hash_map.md

* Add the EN version of Dart code.

* Add the EN version of Kotlin code.

* Add missing code files.

* Add the EN version of JavaScript code.

* Add the EN version of TypeScript code.

* Fix the workflows.

* Add the EN version of Ruby code.

* Add the EN version of Rust code.

* Update the CI check for the English version  code.

* Update Python CI check.

* Fix cmakelists for en/C code.

* Fix Ruby comments

en/codes/javascript/chapter_searching/binary_search.js

@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+/**
+ * File: binary_search.js
+ * Created Time: 2022-12-22
+ * Author: JoseHung (szhong@link.cuhk.edu.hk)
+ */
+
+/* Binary search (closed interval on both sides) */
+function binarySearch(nums, target) {
+    // Initialize closed interval [0, n-1], i.e., i, j point to the first and last elements of the array
+    let i = 0,
+        j = nums.length - 1;
+    // Loop, exit when the search interval is empty (empty when i > j)
+    while (i <= j) {
+        // Calculate midpoint index m, use parseInt() to round down
+        const m = parseInt(i + (j - i) / 2);
+        if (nums[m] < target)
+            // This means target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+            i = m + 1;
+        else if (nums[m] > target)
+            // This means target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+            j = m - 1;
+        else return m; // Found the target element, return its index
+    }
+    // Target element not found, return -1
+    return -1;
+}
+
+/* Binary search (left-closed right-open interval) */
+function binarySearchLCRO(nums, target) {
+    // Initialize left-closed right-open interval [0, n), i.e., i, j point to the first element and last element+1
+    let i = 0,
+        j = nums.length;
+    // Loop, exit when the search interval is empty (empty when i = j)
+    while (i < j) {
+        // Calculate midpoint index m, use parseInt() to round down
+        const m = parseInt(i + (j - i) / 2);
+        if (nums[m] < target)
+            // This means target is in the interval [m+1, j)
+            i = m + 1;
+        else if (nums[m] > target)
+            // This means target is in the interval [i, m)
+            j = m;
+        // Found the target element, return its index
+        else return m;
+    }
+    // Target element not found, return -1
+    return -1;
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+const target = 6;
+const nums = [1, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 23, 26, 31, 35];
+
+/* Binary search (closed interval on both sides) */
+let index = binarySearch(nums, target);
+console.log('Index of target element 6 = ' + index);
+
+/* Binary search (left-closed right-open interval) */
+index = binarySearchLCRO(nums, target);
+console.log('Index of target element 6 = ' + index);

en/codes/javascript/chapter_searching/binary_search_edge.js

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+/**
+ * File: binary_search_edge.js
+ * Created Time: 2023-08-22
+ * Author: Gaofer Chou (gaofer-chou@qq.com)
+ */
+
+const { binarySearchInsertion } = require('./binary_search_insertion.js');
+
+/* Binary search for the leftmost target */
+function binarySearchLeftEdge(nums, target) {
+    // Equivalent to finding the insertion point of target
+    const i = binarySearchInsertion(nums, target);
+    // Target not found, return -1
+    if (i === nums.length || nums[i] !== target) {
+        return -1;
+    }
+    // Found target, return index i
+    return i;
+}
+
+/* Binary search for the rightmost target */
+function binarySearchRightEdge(nums, target) {
+    // Convert to finding the leftmost target + 1
+    const i = binarySearchInsertion(nums, target + 1);
+    // j points to the rightmost target, i points to the first element greater than target
+    const j = i - 1;
+    // Target not found, return -1
+    if (j === -1 || nums[j] !== target) {
+        return -1;
+    }
+    // Found target, return index j
+    return j;
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+// Array with duplicate elements
+const nums = [1, 3, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 10, 12, 15];
+console.log('\nArray nums = ' + nums);
+// Binary search left and right boundaries
+for (const target of [6, 7]) {
+    let index = binarySearchLeftEdge(nums, target);
+    console.log('Leftmost element ' + target + ' has index ' + index);
+    index = binarySearchRightEdge(nums, target);
+    console.log('Rightmost element ' + target + ' has index ' + index);
+}

en/codes/javascript/chapter_searching/binary_search_insertion.js

@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+/**
+ * File: binary_search_insertion.js
+ * Created Time: 2023-08-22
+ * Author: Gaofer Chou (gaofer-chou@qq.com)
+ */
+
+/* Binary search for insertion point (no duplicate elements) */
+function binarySearchInsertionSimple(nums, target) {
+    let i = 0,
+        j = nums.length - 1; // Initialize closed interval [0, n-1]
+    while (i <= j) {
+        const m = Math.floor(i + (j - i) / 2); // Calculate midpoint index m, use Math.floor() to round down
+        if (nums[m] < target) {
+            i = m + 1; // target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+        } else if (nums[m] > target) {
+            j = m - 1; // target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+        } else {
+            return m; // Found target, return insertion point m
+        }
+    }
+    // Target not found, return insertion point i
+    return i;
+}
+
+/* Binary search for insertion point (with duplicate elements) */
+function binarySearchInsertion(nums, target) {
+    let i = 0,
+        j = nums.length - 1; // Initialize closed interval [0, n-1]
+    while (i <= j) {
+        const m = Math.floor(i + (j - i) / 2); // Calculate midpoint index m, use Math.floor() to round down
+        if (nums[m] < target) {
+            i = m + 1; // target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+        } else if (nums[m] > target) {
+            j = m - 1; // target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+        } else {
+            j = m - 1; // The first element less than target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+        }
+    }
+    // Return insertion point i
+    return i;
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+// Array without duplicate elements
+let nums = [1, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 23, 26, 31, 35];
+console.log('\nArray nums = ' + nums);
+// Binary search for insertion point
+for (const target of [6, 9]) {
+    const index = binarySearchInsertionSimple(nums, target);
+    console.log('Element ' + target + ''s insertion point index is ' + index);
+}
+
+// Array with duplicate elements
+nums = [1, 3, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 10, 12, 15];
+console.log('\nArray nums = ' + nums);
+// Binary search for insertion point
+for (const target of [2, 6, 20]) {
+    const index = binarySearchInsertion(nums, target);
+    console.log('Element ' + target + ''s insertion point index is ' + index);
+}
+
+module.exports = {
+    binarySearchInsertion,
+};

en/codes/javascript/chapter_searching/hashing_search.js

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+/**
+ * File: hashing_search.js
+ * Created Time: 2022-12-29
+ * Author: Zhuo Qinyue (1403450829@qq.com)
+ */
+
+const { arrToLinkedList } = require('../modules/ListNode');
+
+/* Hash search (array) */
+function hashingSearchArray(map, target) {
+    // Hash table's key: target element, value: index
+    // If this key does not exist in the hash table, return -1
+    return map.has(target) ? map.get(target) : -1;
+}
+
+/* Hash search (linked list) */
+function hashingSearchLinkedList(map, target) {
+    // Hash table key: target node value, value: node object
+    // If key is not in hash table, return null
+    return map.has(target) ? map.get(target) : null;
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+const target = 3;
+
+/* Hash search (array) */
+const nums = [1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 7, 5, 9, 10, 8];
+// Initialize hash table
+const map = new Map();
+for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
+    map.set(nums[i], i); // key: element, value: index
+}
+const index = hashingSearchArray(map, target);
+console.log('Index of target element 3 = ' + index);
+
+/* Hash search (linked list) */
+let head = arrToLinkedList(nums);
+// Initialize hash table
+const map1 = new Map();
+while (head != null) {
+    map1.set(head.val, head); // key: node value, value: node
+    head = head.next;
+}
+const node = hashingSearchLinkedList(map1, target);
+console.log('Node object with target value 3 is', node);

en/codes/javascript/chapter_searching/linear_search.js

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+/**
+ * File: linear_search.js
+ * Created Time: 2022-12-22
+ * Author: JoseHung (szhong@link.cuhk.edu.hk)
+ */
+
+const { ListNode, arrToLinkedList } = require('../modules/ListNode');
+
+/* Linear search (array) */
+function linearSearchArray(nums, target) {
+    // Traverse array
+    for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
+        // Found the target element, return its index
+        if (nums[i] === target) {
+            return i;
+        }
+    }
+    // Target element not found, return -1
+    return -1;
+}
+
+/* Linear search (linked list) */
+function linearSearchLinkedList(head, target) {
+    // Traverse the linked list
+    while (head) {
+        // Found the target node, return it
+        if (head.val === target) {
+            return head;
+        }
+        head = head.next;
+    }
+    // Target node not found, return null
+    return null;
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+const target = 3;
+
+/* Perform linear search in array */
+const nums = [1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 7, 5, 9, 10, 8];
+const index = linearSearchArray(nums, target);
+console.log('Index of target element 3 = ' + index);
+
+/* Perform linear search in linked list */
+const head = arrToLinkedList(nums);
+const node = linearSearchLinkedList(head, target);
+console.log('Node object corresponding to target node value 3 is ', node);

en/codes/javascript/chapter_searching/two_sum.js

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+/**
+ * File: two_sum.js
+ * Created Time: 2022-12-15
+ * Author: gyt95 (gytkwan@gmail.com)
+ */
+
+/* Method 1: Brute force enumeration */
+function twoSumBruteForce(nums, target) {
+    const n = nums.length;
+    // Two nested loops, time complexity is O(n^2)
+    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+        for (let j = i + 1; j < n; j++) {
+            if (nums[i] + nums[j] === target) {
+                return [i, j];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    return [];
+}
+
+/* Method 2: Auxiliary hash table */
+function twoSumHashTable(nums, target) {
+    // Auxiliary hash table, space complexity is O(n)
+    let m = {};
+    // Single loop, time complexity is O(n)
+    for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
+        if (m[target - nums[i]] !== undefined) {
+            return [m[target - nums[i]], i];
+        } else {
+            m[nums[i]] = i;
+        }
+    }
+    return [];
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+// Method 1
+const nums = [2, 7, 11, 15],
+    target = 13;
+
+let res = twoSumBruteForce(nums, target);
+console.log('Method 1 res = ', res);
+
+// Method 2
+res = twoSumHashTable(nums, target);
+console.log('Method 2 res = ', res);