Translate all code to English (#1836)

* Review the EN heading format.

* Fix pythontutor headings.

* Fix pythontutor headings.

* bug fixes

* Fix headings in **/summary.md

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Python code using Claude-4.5

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Java code using Claude-4.5

* Revisit the CN-to-EN translation for Cpp code using Claude-4.5.

* Fix the dictionary.

* Fix cpp code translation for the multipart strings.

* Translate Go code to English.

* Update workflows to test EN code.

* Add EN translation for C.

* Add EN translation for CSharp.

* Add EN translation for Swift.

* Trigger the CI check.

* Revert.

* Update en/hash_map.md

* Add the EN version of Dart code.

* Add the EN version of Kotlin code.

* Add missing code files.

* Add the EN version of JavaScript code.

* Add the EN version of TypeScript code.

* Fix the workflows.

* Add the EN version of Ruby code.

* Add the EN version of Rust code.

* Update the CI check for the English version  code.

* Update Python CI check.

* Fix cmakelists for en/C code.

* Fix Ruby comments

en/codes/rust/chapter_searching/binary_search.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+/*
+ * File: binary_search.rs
+ * Created Time: 2023-02-05
+ * Author: codingonion (coderonion@gmail.com)
+ */
+
+/* Binary search (closed interval on both sides) */
+fn binary_search(nums: &[i32], target: i32) -> i32 {
+    // Initialize closed interval [0, n-1], i.e., i, j point to the first and last elements of the array
+    let mut i = 0;
+    let mut j = nums.len() as i32 - 1;
+    // Loop, exit when the search interval is empty (empty when i > j)
+    while i <= j {
+        let m = i + (j - i) / 2; // Calculate the midpoint index m
+        if nums[m as usize] < target {
+            // This means target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+            i = m + 1;
+        } else if nums[m as usize] > target {
+            // This means target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+            j = m - 1;
+        } else {
+            // Found the target element, return its index
+            return m;
+        }
+    }
+    // Target element not found, return -1
+    return -1;
+}
+
+/* Binary search (left-closed right-open interval) */
+fn binary_search_lcro(nums: &[i32], target: i32) -> i32 {
+    // Initialize left-closed right-open interval [0, n), i.e., i, j point to the first element and last element+1
+    let mut i = 0;
+    let mut j = nums.len() as i32;
+    // Loop, exit when the search interval is empty (empty when i = j)
+    while i < j {
+        let m = i + (j - i) / 2; // Calculate the midpoint index m
+        if nums[m as usize] < target {
+            // This means target is in the interval [m+1, j)
+            i = m + 1;
+        } else if nums[m as usize] > target {
+            // This means target is in the interval [i, m)
+            j = m;
+        } else {
+            // Found the target element, return its index
+            return m;
+        }
+    }
+    // Target element not found, return -1
+    return -1;
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+pub fn main() {
+    let target = 6;
+    let nums = [1, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 23, 26, 31, 35];
+
+    // Binary search (closed interval on both sides)
+    let mut index = binary_search(&nums, target);
+    println!("Index of target element 6 is {index}");
+
+    // Binary search (left-closed right-open interval)
+    index = binary_search_lcro(&nums, target);
+    println!("Index of target element 6 is {index}");
+}

en/codes/rust/chapter_searching/binary_search_edge.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+/*
+ * File: binary_search_edge.rs
+ * Created Time: 2023-08-30
+ * Author: night-cruise (2586447362@qq.com)
+ */
+
+mod binary_search_insertion;
+
+use binary_search_insertion::binary_search_insertion;
+
+/* Binary search for the leftmost target */
+fn binary_search_left_edge(nums: &[i32], target: i32) -> i32 {
+    // Equivalent to finding the insertion point of target
+    let i = binary_search_insertion(nums, target);
+    // Target not found, return -1
+    if i == nums.len() as i32 || nums[i as usize] != target {
+        return -1;
+    }
+    // Found target, return index i
+    i
+}
+
+/* Binary search for the rightmost target */
+fn binary_search_right_edge(nums: &[i32], target: i32) -> i32 {
+    // Convert to finding the leftmost target + 1
+    let i = binary_search_insertion(nums, target + 1);
+    // j points to the rightmost target, i points to the first element greater than target
+    let j = i - 1;
+    // Target not found, return -1
+    if j == -1 || nums[j as usize] != target {
+        return -1;
+    }
+    // Found target, return index j
+    j
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+fn main() {
+    // Array with duplicate elements
+    let nums = [1, 3, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 10, 12, 15];
+    println!("\nArray nums = {:?}", nums);
+
+    // Binary search left and right boundaries
+    for target in [6, 7] {
+        let index = binary_search_left_edge(&nums, target);
+        println!("Leftmost element {} index is {}", target, index);
+        let index = binary_search_right_edge(&nums, target);
+        println!("Rightmost element {} index is {}", target, index);
+    }
+}

en/codes/rust/chapter_searching/binary_search_insertion.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+/*
+ * File: binary_search_insertion.rs
+ * Created Time: 2023-08-30
+ * Author: night-cruise (2586447362@qq.com)
+ */
+#![allow(unused)]
+
+/* Binary search for insertion point (no duplicate elements) */
+fn binary_search_insertion_simple(nums: &[i32], target: i32) -> i32 {
+    let (mut i, mut j) = (0, nums.len() as i32 - 1); // Initialize closed interval [0, n-1]
+    while i <= j {
+        let m = i + (j - i) / 2; // Calculate the midpoint index m
+        if nums[m as usize] < target {
+            i = m + 1; // target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+        } else if nums[m as usize] > target {
+            j = m - 1; // target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+        } else {
+            return m;
+        }
+    }
+    // Target not found, return insertion point i
+    i
+}
+
+/* Binary search for insertion point (with duplicate elements) */
+pub fn binary_search_insertion(nums: &[i32], target: i32) -> i32 {
+    let (mut i, mut j) = (0, nums.len() as i32 - 1); // Initialize closed interval [0, n-1]
+    while i <= j {
+        let m = i + (j - i) / 2; // Calculate the midpoint index m
+        if nums[m as usize] < target {
+            i = m + 1; // target is in the interval [m+1, j]
+        } else if nums[m as usize] > target {
+            j = m - 1; // target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+        } else {
+            j = m - 1; // The first element less than target is in the interval [i, m-1]
+        }
+    }
+    // Return insertion point i
+    i
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+fn main() {
+    // Array without duplicate elements
+    let nums = [1, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 23, 26, 31, 35];
+    println!("\nArray nums = {:?}", nums);
+    // Binary search for insertion point
+    for target in [6, 9] {
+        let index = binary_search_insertion_simple(&nums, target);
+        println!("Insertion point index for element {} is {}", target, index);
+    }
+
+    // Array with duplicate elements
+    let nums = [1, 3, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 10, 12, 15];
+    println!("\nArray nums = {:?}", nums);
+    // Binary search for insertion point
+    for target in [2, 6, 20] {
+        let index = binary_search_insertion(&nums, target);
+        println!("Insertion point index for element {} is {}", target, index);
+    }
+}

en/codes/rust/chapter_searching/hashing_search.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+/*
+ * File: hashing_search.rs
+ * Created Time: 2023-07-09
+ * Author: codingonion (coderonion@gmail.com)
+ */
+
+use hello_algo_rust::include::ListNode;
+use std::cell::RefCell;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::rc::Rc;
+
+/* Hash search (array) */
+fn hashing_search_array<'a>(map: &'a HashMap<i32, usize>, target: i32) -> Option<&'a usize> {
+    // Hash table's key: target element, value: index
+    // If this key does not exist in the hash table, return None
+    map.get(&target)
+}
+
+/* Hash search (linked list) */
+fn hashing_search_linked_list(
+    map: &HashMap<i32, Rc<RefCell<ListNode<i32>>>>,
+    target: i32,
+) -> Option<&Rc<RefCell<ListNode<i32>>>> {
+    // Hash table key: target node value, value: node object
+    // If this key does not exist in the hash table, return None
+    map.get(&target)
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+pub fn main() {
+    let target = 3;
+
+    /* Hash search (array) */
+    let nums = [1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 7, 5, 9, 10, 8];
+    // Initialize hash table
+    let mut map = HashMap::new();
+    for (i, num) in nums.iter().enumerate() {
+        map.insert(*num, i); // key: element, value: index
+    }
+    let index = hashing_search_array(&map, target);
+    println!("Index of target element 3 = {}", index.unwrap());
+
+    /* Hash search (linked list) */
+    let head = ListNode::arr_to_linked_list(&nums);
+    // Initialize hash table
+    // let mut map1 = HashMap::new();
+    let map1 = ListNode::linked_list_to_hashmap(head);
+    let node = hashing_search_linked_list(&map1, target);
+    println!("Node object corresponding to target node value 3 is {:?}", node);
+}

en/codes/rust/chapter_searching/linear_search.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+/*
+ * File: linear_search.rs
+ * Created Time: 2023-07-09
+ * Author: codingonion (coderonion@gmail.com)
+ */
+
+use hello_algo_rust::include::ListNode;
+use std::cell::RefCell;
+use std::rc::Rc;
+
+/* Linear search (array) */
+fn linear_search_array(nums: &[i32], target: i32) -> i32 {
+    // Traverse array
+    for (i, num) in nums.iter().enumerate() {
+        // Found the target element, return its index
+        if num == &target {
+            return i as i32;
+        }
+    }
+    // Target element not found, return -1
+    return -1;
+}
+
+/* Linear search (linked list) */
+fn linear_search_linked_list(
+    head: Rc<RefCell<ListNode<i32>>>,
+    target: i32,
+) -> Option<Rc<RefCell<ListNode<i32>>>> {
+    // Found the target node, return it
+    if head.borrow().val == target {
+        return Some(head);
+    };
+    // Found the target node, return it
+    if let Some(node) = &head.borrow_mut().next {
+        return linear_search_linked_list(node.clone(), target);
+    }
+    // Target node not found, return None
+    return None;
+}
+
+/* Driver Code */
+pub fn main() {
+    let target = 3;
+
+    /* Perform linear search in array */
+    let nums = [1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 7, 5, 9, 10, 8];
+    let index = linear_search_array(&nums, target);
+    println!("Index of target element 3 = {}", index);
+
+    /* Perform linear search in linked list */
+    let head = ListNode::arr_to_linked_list(&nums);
+    let node = linear_search_linked_list(head.unwrap(), target);
+    println!("Node object corresponding to target node value 3 is {:?}", node);
+}

en/codes/rust/chapter_searching/two_sum.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+/*
+ * File: two_sum.rs
+ * Created Time: 2023-01-14
+ * Author: xBLACICEx (xBLACKICEx@outlook.com), codingonion (coderonion@gmail.com)
+ */
+
+use hello_algo_rust::include::print_util;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+/* Method 1: Brute force enumeration */
+pub fn two_sum_brute_force(nums: &Vec<i32>, target: i32) -> Option<Vec<i32>> {
+    let size = nums.len();
+    // Two nested loops, time complexity is O(n^2)
+    for i in 0..size - 1 {
+        for j in i + 1..size {
+            if nums[i] + nums[j] == target {
+                return Some(vec![i as i32, j as i32]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+/* Method 2: Auxiliary hash table */
+pub fn two_sum_hash_table(nums: &Vec<i32>, target: i32) -> Option<Vec<i32>> {
+    // Auxiliary hash table, space complexity is O(n)
+    let mut dic = HashMap::new();
+    // Single loop, time complexity is O(n)
+    for (i, num) in nums.iter().enumerate() {
+        match dic.get(&(target - num)) {
+            Some(v) => return Some(vec![*v as i32, i as i32]),
+            None => dic.insert(num, i as i32),
+        };
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    // ======= Test Case =======
+    let nums = vec![2, 7, 11, 15];
+    let target = 13;
+
+    // ====== Driver Code ======
+    // Method 1
+    let res = two_sum_brute_force(&nums, target).unwrap();
+    print!("Method 1 res = ");
+    print_util::print_array(&res);
+    // Method 2
+    let res = two_sum_hash_table(&nums, target).unwrap();
+    print!("\nMethod 2 res = ");
+    print_util::print_array(&res);
+}